The evolution of the spiritual culture of ancient China: from the sacred to the secular in poetry (11th century BC — 3rd century AD)

Abstract

This article examines the evolution of the spiritual culture of ancient China through the lens of poetic monuments from the 11th century BCE to the 3rd century CE. The author focuses on the transition from a sacral, collective-ritual understanding of poetry to secular forms of individual expression. The relevance of the study lies in the growing scholarly interest in the historical and cultural processes of China and the insufficiently explored transformation of spiritual ideals as recorded in poetic texts, which capture lived experience rather than prescriptive norms. The chronological framework covers three key periods: the era of the Shijing (Classic of Poetry, 11th–6th centuries BCE), the Chu ci (Songs of Chu, 475–221 BCE), and the poetry of the Han dynasty (202 BCE – 220 CE). The theoretical foundation includes works by Russian and Western sinologists (M. E. Kravtsova, V. V. Malyavin, I. A. Alimov, M. L. Titarenko, Stephen Owen, Zong-qi Cai) as well as translations by A. A. Shtukin. The article sequentially reveals the specifics of each period. The Shijing, as a collection of folk songs and ritual hymns, is shown to function as a sacred tool for maintaining a harmonious world order, where poetry is inseparable from music and ritual. The Chu ci, in contrast, marks the birth of authored lyric poetry: the works of Qu Yuan and his contemporaries reflect the crisis of the old order, tragic individualism, and opposition to unjust rule. Finally, Han dynasty poetry (genres such as yuefu, fu ode, landscape and philosophical lyric) synthesizes the traditions of previous eras, enriches its thematic range (from love and friendship to social critique and Daoist concepts of the unity of man and cosmos), and definitively establishes secular tendencies. Special attention is paid to the analysis of such works as Qu Yuan’s Li Sao, the odes of Jia Yi and Mei Sheng, and the role of court literary circles. The author concludes that ancient Chinese poetry evolved from ritual collectivism through tragic individualism to a complex synthesis of traditions. The studied monuments are regarded not only as a literary heritage but also as a unique historical and cultural source that allows us to trace profound changes in how humans understood their place in the world. The article is addressed to orientalists, cultural historians, and anyone interested in the history of Chinese literature.